This ancient Babylonian tablet may contain the first evidence of trigonometry. As a group follows a trader, it can explore all of the choices presented in the online activity, but must eventually follow the trader to the final destination. Though the map was inscribed long after the demise of Old Babylonia, archaeological evidence has proven it remarkably accurate in showing the city as it was in Old Babylonia. Its most outstanding member, Nebuchadrezzar I (reigned 11191098 bce), defeated Elam and successfully fought off Assyrian advances for some years. visiting each other in their temples during certain festivals . Mathematical mystery of ancient Babylonian clay tablet solved. Have students answer the questions in the quiz, Assign class members to three or six groups. If we've learned anything from the COVID-19 pandemic, it's that we cannot wait for a crisis to respond. Babylon is known for Hammurabi's laws and its hanging gardens. Our editors will review what youve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. But clay was found throughout the Middle East. We have no way, at present, of knowing with any certainty the reasons for Hammurabi's conquests. Leick noted that on Oct. 29, 539 B.C. The Levant, in modern-day Syria, Lebanon, Israel . 1155 BC ( short chronology ). But Mansfield and Wildberger contend that the Babylonians, expert surveyors, could have used their tables to construct palaces, temples, and canals. Mesopotamia, a hot, dry region subject to floods, became fertile enough to produce a surplus of grain thanks largely to a system of canals first built perhaps a thousand years before the Old Babylonian period. some materials imported by traders and their uses; the influence of trade on aspects of life in Babylonia not directly related to trade, such as religion, culture, government, and the economy. Find the perfect ancient canals stock vector image. the Babylonian canals, serving as means of communication for the magur-boats. This is the technique of its construction. Here is a map of the region where the civilisation flourished. Also known as: All Bbil, Bb-ilim, Bab-ilu, Babel, Bavel, Emeritus Professor of Semitic Languages, University College, Cardiff, University of Wales. After the groups work on their own, bring the class together. /c/chebar.htm - 10k. Analyze connections among events and developments in broader historical contexts. Use questions generated about multiple historical sources to identify further areas of inquiry and additional sources. Babylonians were polytheistic and worshiped a large pantheon of gods and goddesses. The citys importance was much reduced by the building of a new capital, Seleucia on the Tigris, where part of Babylons population was transferred in 275. Close Assyrian involvement in Babylon began with Tiglath-pileser III (744727 bce) as a result of Chaldean tribesmen pressing into city territories, several times usurping the kingship. Although largely destroyed today, in ancient times the ziggurat of Etemenanki (which roughly translates to the "Temple Foundation of Heaven and Earth") towered over the city, and was located just to the north of the Esangil shrine. Around 1200 B.C., the eastern Mediterranean faced calamity as a wave of migrants sometimes called the "Sea People" swept through much of the Middle East, destroying cities in Turkey and the Levant and contributing to problems that caused the breakup of ancient Egypt. For information on the ancient Nippur map read the three paragraphs starting with the words, "The catastrophic abandonment of the heart of Babylonia." Live Science is part of Future US Inc, an international media group and leading digital publisher. "It took me 2 years of looking at this [tablet] and saying I'm sure it's trig, I'm sure it's trig, but how?'" Reading the entire essay provides a detailed account of the archaeological history of Nippur. Later in this period, Babylon became a literary and religious centre, the prestige of which was reflected in the elevation of Marduk, its chief god, to supremacy in Mesopotamia. The Kassites were an ancient Near Eastern people who gained control of Babylonia after the fall of the Old Babylonian Empire after ca. However, the code did have rules that protected women. Babylon fell to which Persian ruler in 539 BCE? King). Some of the gods were state deities, like Marduk, the chief patron god of Babylon . He was an Amorite, a member of a Semitic-speaking people from the area around modern-day Syria. Huge collection, amazing choice, 100+ million high quality, affordable RF and RM images. Considered the canal par excellence of ancient Babylonia proper, it is said to have been fifteen to twenty feet (4.6 to 6.1 meters) deep in places, a sufficient depth to make it navigable by certain vessels. What was the purpose of a ziggurat? Sumerians excavated canals along these new water courses and dug smaller feeder channels. All the waters in Egypt were of the Nile and this word ye'or was used to denote all of them, the Nile and all its ramifications through the whole irrigating system. He also revitalized Babylon, constructing the wondrous hanging gardens and rebuilding the Temple of Marduk and its accompanying ziggurat. The ancient city and its people's accomplishments have affected people for thousands of years, and their impact can still be felt today. What connections existed between trade and the economic, cultural, and religious life of Old Babylonia? In the sixth century B.C., the Achaemenid, or Persian Empire rose to the east of Babylon and became so powerful that it would later invade territories as far west as Greece. "According to the testimony of classical writers, the site of Babylon had become deserted by the second century A.D.," Paul-Alain Beaulieu, a professor of Assyriology at the University of Toronto, wrote in his book "A History of Babylon: 2200 B.C.- A.D. 75 (opens in new tab)" (Wiley Blackwell, 2018). Updates? An essay on Babylon's history written by Michael Seymour, associate curator at the Met, can be viewed on the Met's website (opens in new tab). was a rocky one for Babylon, and involved many wars and some successes. Omissions? At the height of its glory in the 7th and 6th centuries B.C.E., the ancient city of Babylon was the largest and wealthiest in the world. Cursive form Seleucid Period(c. 320 BC to c. 620 AD) Formal Three ways to express the number 19 The horizontal symbol above the 1 designated subtraction. Daniel Mansfield holds the 3700-year-old Babylonian tablet that he and colleagues used to make their case. Following the conquest, the Kassites appear to have made an effort to win over the people of Babylon. Hammurabi, also spelled Hammurapi, (born, Babylon [now in Iraq]died c. 1750 bce), sixth and best-known ruler of the 1st (Amorite) dynasty of Babylon (reigning c. 1792-1750 bce), noted for his surviving set of laws, once considered the oldest promulgation of laws in human history. He had a major impact on the city's fortunes and transformed this once-small kingdom into a great empire. Compare the following three maps (available at a link from the British Museum's "Mesopotamia" site through, One significant feature of Nippur was a large ziggurat, a temple built atop a stepped platform. Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. More recently, Islamic State group (also called ISIS, ISIL or Daesh) forces failed to reach Babylon during their 2014 offensive in the region, and as such, the city was spared the destruction thatbefell other ancient sitesoccupied by the terrorist group. Babylon's acknowledged political supremacy is shown by the fact that the dynasty of Nebuchadrezzar I (1124-03), which endured for more than a century, made the city its capital, though the dynasty did not originate there. What are the connections between trade and organized religion? Then have each group share at least one example in each category showing the influence of trade on life in Old Babylonia. But what indications point to the existence of a large-scale system of trade? The Babylonians invented astronomy and an advanced form of mathematics, built grand cities and canals, and are credited with codifying laws. Between 2009 and 2015, the World Monuments Fund (opens in new tab) supported a conservation project at Babylon. Reeds were encouraged. The ancient scientists who lived in Babylon made important discoveries in mathematics, physics and astronomy. Its political importance, together with its favourable location, made it henceforth the main commercial and administrative centre of Babylonia, while its wealth and prestige made it a target for foreign conquerors. Analyze multiple factors that influenced the perspectives of people during different historical eras. For instance, if a man divorced his wife he had to give her back her dowry and give her some of his land. Now, a fresh look at a 3700-year-old clay tablet suggests that Babylonian mathematicians not only developed the first trig table, beating the Greeks to the punch by more than 1000 years, but that they also figured out an entirely new way to look at the subject. They built canals, dykes and reservoirs. ca. They also stored water in reservoirs to use during the dry months of the year . The Hanging Gardens, which Nebuchadnezzar built, remains one of the Seven Wonders of the World, and many Babylonian mathematical ideas are in use today. The Ziggurat of Marduk or "Etemenanki" (the fabled "Tower of Babel") reconstructed here by Chipiez. The canals could be up to 16 meters (52.5 feet) wide. Ancient Babylonian records are still used by modern-day astronomers to study how Earth's rotation has changed. must have felt as though they were in the antechamber of hell," Kleber wrote, noting that ancient texts mention discontent among the Babylonians. Students can now review the artifacts online independently using the. 626 - 539 BCE New Babylonian Empire . Babylon was abandoned in the centuries thereafter. Ultimately, Hammurabi's empire did not last; it fell into decline after his death in 1750 B.C. Prior to the occupation, Hussein had constructed a palace at Babylon that "looms over the city" but "is strikingly out of place," Galbraith wrote. Judeans in Babylonia: A Study of Deportees in the Sixth and Fifth Centuries BCE. In the economic life of ancient Babylonia the marshes formed an essential factor and were indispensable in each district, since they supplied reeds. /c/chebar.htm - 10k. Modern-day scholars have noted that Herodotus, who lived earlier than Philo, does not mention the Hanging Gardens. The Persians, under Cyrus the Great, captured Babylonia from Nebuchadrezzars last successor Nabonidus in 539 bce. Hammurabi (standing), king of Babylon, depicted as receiving his royal insignia from Shamash, god of justice. They used stone hoes to plow the ground before the invention of the plow. It was located near the Euphrates River,. "We prefer sines and cosines but we have to really get outside our own culture to see from their perspective to be able to understand it.". Review all web sites and materials students will view. The ancient Babylonian canals and waterways are the most similar in function to the Suez canal. Its citizens claimed privileges, such as exemption from forced labour, certain taxes, and imprisonment, which the Assyrians, with a similar background, were usually readier to recognize than were immigrant tribesmen. Archaeologists know little about what Babylon itself looked like during Hammurabi's reign. Who is Monica Bertagnolli, Bidens pick to lead NIH? Though traces of prehistoric settlement exist, Babylons development as a major city was late by Mesopotamian standards; no mention of it existed before the 23rd century bce. His son Nebuchadrezzar II (reigned 605562 bce) conquered Syria and Palestine; he is best remembered for the destruction of Judah and Jerusalem in 587 bce and for the ensuing Babylonian captivity of the Jews. writer who wrote in Greek and lived in Babylon], Herodotus and a few others," Beaulieu wrote, noting that the cuneiform writing system used by the Babylonians stopped being used in the first century A.D. and the memory of how to read it was lost. "Babylon, in all its manifestations, is at once remote to us and all around us. While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. The workers "who rebuilt the city wall of Babylon in the years 528526 B.C. Save up to 30% when you upgrade to an image pack. After U.S. forces left, some cleanup and conservation work was done, and the ancient city has been reopened for tourists. Toothpaste. offerings are given to the religious temple. Hammurabi (17921750BCE), the sixth and best-known ruler of the Amorite dynasty, conquered the surrounding city-states and designated Babylon as the capital of a kingdom that comprised all of southern Mesopotamia and part of Assyria. The preamble to the code says that "then Anu and Bel [both gods] called by name me, Hammurabi, the exalted prince, who feared God, to bring about the rule of righteousness in the land, to destroy the wicked and the evil-doers; so that the strong should not harm the weak." to 600 B.C. "I went as harbinger of peace into Babylon," he said. Tero Alstola (2020). In it, the king is shown standing beside the ziggurat. Abgal- Seven wise-men and the attending deities of the god Enki. From this period to the fall of Assyria in the late 7th century bce, there was a continual struggle between Aramaean or associated Chaldean tribesmen and the Assyrians for political control of the city. The plow was important because they could use it to prepare planting crops and would increase farming production. Babylonia, ancient cultural region occupying southeastern Mesopotamia between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers (modern southern Iraq from around Baghdad to the Persian Gulf ). When the Persian Achaemenian dynasty under Cyrus the Great attacked Babylon in 539 BCE, the Babylon capital fell almost without resistance. Get a Britannica Premium subscription and gain access to exclusive content. Broken mud brick walls make up the archaeological site of Babylon, built between the 18th and 6th centuries B.C. UNSW Sydney scientists have discovered the purpose of a famous 3700-year old Babylonian clay tablet, revealing it is the world's oldest and most accurate trigonometric table, possibly used by. By the Middle Ages, Babylon's ruins were known mainly as a good place to get bricks, Pedersn wrote in his book. Explain multiple causes and effects of events and developments in the past. For more on life in Old Babylonia, see the complementary EDSITEment lesson Hammurabi's Code: What Does it Tell Us about Old Babylonia? Stream (96 Occurrences) . Which materials would be relatively easy to transport? However, in the last years of his rule, the Babylonian empire was attacked by the Persians and ultimately destroyed. Measuring 568 by 502 feet (173 by 153 m), it was "for use in summer when the city air was stifling and its smells at their worst," George wrote. ), renowned as the builder of Babylon's famous Hanging Gardens. Each group follows one of three traders in the. Babylon also supposedly featured spectacular gardens, known as the Hanging Gardens. After a power struggle among Alexanders generals, Babylon passed to the Seleucid dynasty in 312. In an ancient inscription called the "Cyrus Cylinder," now housed in the British Museum in London, Cyrus claimed that his troops faced no resistance when he took Babylon. Create an account. "Those two ratios from the reconstruction really made P322 into a clean and easy-to-use trigonometric table," he says. Whether the object was to use this great canal for purposes of navigation or simply for drainage can never be known. Even after the Babylonians, through the expansion of their empire, made their chief god Marduk head of the pantheon, leaders still sent tribute to Nippur. Please make a tax-deductible gift today. The artifact has been given the name "The Tower of Babel Stele.". When you purchase through links on our site, we may earn an affiliate commission. The symbol means subtraction. It appears that Saddam tried to buy his way into the history books by building his monument overlooking the ancient city," Galbraith wrote. The Persian king Darius in the 5th century bce cut a canal from the Nile River to the Red Sea. Ancient records suggest that more than 4,000 years ago, at a time when the city of Ur (in what is now southern Iraq) was the center of an empire, Babylon was a provincial administration center and was part of Ur's empire, wrote historian Gwendolyn Leick in her book "The Babylonians: An Introduction (opens in new tab)" (Routledge, 2002). It dates to the reign of Nebuchadnezzar I (circa 1126 B.C. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. Explore the historical city of Babylon and see the efforts of scientists to reconstruct the city. Someone from each group should briefly summarize their merchant's journey. = 19 = 19 = 19 Old Babylonian. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). Corrections? 1531 BC to ca. Babylonia, ancient cultural region occupying southeastern Mesopotamia between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers (modern southern Iraq from around Baghdad to the Persian Gulf). Babylon was built in an area that's "subject to very high temperatures and lies well beyond the reach of rain-fed agriculture," Seymour, a research associate at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City, wrote in his book "Babylon: Legend, History and the Ancient City" (I.B. In the mid-7th century, civil war broke out between the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal and his brother who ruled in Babylonia (southern Mesopotamia) as sub-king. Hammurabi's Code: What Does it Tell Us about Old Babylonia? All rights reserved. Enterprise. During this period, Babylonian writing may have become more professionalized and exclusive (Leick noted that there appears to have been far fewer personal letters written), but the language itself became widely used across the Middle East. Herodotus wrote that "in the last tower there is a great shrine; and in it stands a great and well-covered couch, and a golden table nearby. NCSSD2.His.2.6-8. After 1800 BCE, Hammurabi greatly expanded the city-state of Babylon into the Babylonian empire. Future US, Inc. Full 7th Floor, 130 West 42nd Street, Note: Dilmun, likely the present day island nation Bahrain, was a critical crossroads on the trade routes between Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley of present day Pakistan and northern India. For much of its early history, Babylon was a small, obscure city-state until King Hammurabi (1792-1750 BC) chose it as his capital, expanding the empire that became Babylonia. The Babylonians created the wheel in around 3,500 BC, the earliest wheel being used for pottery. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. Before Babylons rise to political prominence (c. 1850 bce), however, the area was divided into two countries: Sumer in the southeast and Akkad in the northwest. Despite the series of political crises that marked their history, however, Sumer and Akkad developed rich cultures. "The remains of Hammurabi's own city at Babylon are, unfortunately, almost inaccessible as the water table has risen too high to allow them to be explored," archaeology researcher Harriet Crawford wrote in a paper published in the book "The Babylonian World (opens in new tab)" (Routledge, 2007). 1696 - 1654 BC, short chronology) created an empire out of the territories of the former Akkadian Empire. A boundary stone that records the services of chariot commander Ritti-Marduk, in a campaign against Elam in South Iran. However, Alexander died, and his empire descended into civil war before the plan could be brought to fruition. to 627 B.C,. His motivations, therefore, are open to hypothesis. is credited with producing the Code of Hammurabi, the oldest surviving set of laws. Throughmilitary conquests, Nebuchadnezzar II came to rule an empire that stretched from the Persian Gulf to the borders of Egypt. Galbraith reported from Iraq after the 2003 U.S.-led invasion and visited Babylon shortly after the U.S. occupation of Iraq began. ascended the throne. A vibrant trading system developed, bringing manufactured goods and raw materials from as far as Turkey, and even India, 1,500 miles away. Elam, too, grew powerful and ultimately conquered most of Babylonia, felling the Kassite dynasty (c. 1157 bce). While archaeological remains in Babylon dating to this period are scarce, textual remains reveal more information. Babylon, the ancient Mesopotamian civilization, existed from roughly 2000 B.C. These terraces could have been used for planting trees and other vegetation possibly inspiring stories about a "Hanging Garden of Babylon," Pedersn wrote. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). Just before 1000, pressure from Aramaean immigrants from northern Syria brought administrative dislocation inside Babylon. NCSSD2.His.3.6-8. "I founded my sovereign residence within the palace amid celebration and rejoicing" (translation by Irving Finkel). TheCode of Hammurabi(now in the Louvre Museum in Paris) is well known for its "eye for an eye" style of lawmaking, but it also set out the nature of the relationship among Hammurabi, the gods and the people he ruled. In this lesson, students explore the trade industry in Old Babylonia and its far-flung influence. What's still lacking is proof that the Babylonians did in fact use this table, or others like it, for solving problems in the manner suggested in the new paper, Ossendrijver says. In about 250 B.C., Philo of Byzantium wrote that "The Hanging Gardens [structure is so called because it] has plants cultivated at a height above ground level, and the roots of the trees are embedded in an upper terrace rather than in the earth. Not every trader journey was an extended one, however, and some goods passed through numerous hands on much shorter journeys before reaching their destination. In the history of Babylon, the most distinguished leader was Hammurabi who reigned between the years 1790 B.C and 1750 B.C, approximately. "This victory signalled the annexation of all the old urban centers, such as Ur, Uruk, Isin and Larsa," Leick wrote. The first wheel did not have spokes and was in the form of a roller. Babylon struggled over the following centuries, and the Assyrians invaded again. Every spring, the king, his courtiers, priests and statues of the gods traveled along the processional way to the Akitu temple to celebrate the New Year festival. Get more great content like this delivered right to you! Their essay should concentrate on one of the following questions: Students should think about the following issues while writing their essays: They should use all of the information that they have gathered while completing this lesson, and use examples from what they have read in their essays. Babylonian Canals Ancient Babylon had canals for both irrigation and travel. The Babylonian plain is very fertile. NY 10036. The Kassites gained control of Babylonia after the Hittite sack of the city in 1585 BC, and estabilshed a dynasty based in Dur-Kurigalzu . However, Babylon would never be independent again. Ancient necropolis unearthed just feet away from bustling Paris train station, Seemingly 'empty' burial mound is hiding a 1,200-year-old Viking ship, Taxidermy birds are being turned into drones, By Morgan Bailee Boggess McCoyApril 05, 2023. They had access to good horses, giving them a military advantage, according to Leick. Reeds were used for sails and baskets. Built by Nebuchadnezzar II and named after Ishtar, a goddess of love and war, theIshtar Gateserved as the ceremonial entrance to the inner wall of Babylon a route that led to the ziggurat and Esangil shrine. Babylon was later turned into a U.S. military base. Examine trade records to determine how economics, culture, and politics are interrelated. Here, a woodcut of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon in ancient times, which is one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. 900 - 612 BCE Assyrian Empire . The Kassites, who were an important force in the region from the 16th to the 12th centuries BCE, took up residence in Nippur centuries after the city was abandoned, and created the ancient map of Nippur. events that led to the destruction of the First Temple, the deportation of manyJewishinhabitants to Babylonia and the capture of theArk of the Covenant. The city is also famous for the construction of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon (if the ancient stories are true), awonder of the ancient world that some people believe was built by the biblical king Nebuchadnezzar II. Ancient Egyptian and Babylonian mathematicians lacked the concept of an angle measure, but they studied the ratios of the sides of similar triangles and discovered some properties of these. Prior to Nebuchadnezzar II, much of Babylon was made of unbaked bricks, but during the rebuilding program, "good baked bricks" were widely used, Olof Pedersn, professor emeritus of Assyriology at Uppsala University in Sweden, wrote in his book "Babylon: The Great City (opens in new tab)" (Zaphon, 2021). 1) a Babylonian river near which many Israelite exiles settled; maybe the 'Habor' or the 'Royal Canal' of Nebuchadnezzar 3529 Kbar keb-awr' the same as 3528; length; Kebar, a river of Mesopotamia:-Chebar. Their excavations help further public interest in Babylon and Middle East archaeology in general. Explain how and why perspectives of people have changed over time. What is Chaldean-Babylonian Architecture? Mansfield says. The Babylonian king Hammurabi (1792-1750 B.C.) They needed to be constantly balanced. "But that is really an open question at the moment.". That was quite apart from the hundreds of street site chapels and shrines," George wrote. All the waters in Egypt were of the Nile and this word ye'or was used to denote all of them, the Nile and all its ramifications through the whole irrigating system. In 605 B.C., Nebuchadnezzar II, of biblical fame, ascended the throne, and he was in a strong position to build an empire. Ancient Western Asia and the Civilization of Mesopotamia, The Oriental Institute: The University of Chicago, Nippur Sacred City Of Enlil, Supreme God Of Sumer And Akkad, The Emergence and Evolution of the Cuneiform Writing System in Ancient Mesopotamia, video on Babylon produced by the British Museum, Overlay of Ancient Nippur Map on Modern Topographic Plan of Site, Recommended Reading on the Ancient Near East, Head of Male: Old Babylonian; 20001600 BCE, Necklace pendants and beads: Old Babylonian, late; 17th16th century BCE, Duck Weights of Hematite Early second millennium BCE, Plaque Showing a Harpist: Old Babylonian; 20001600 BCE, Mesopotamia in 1750 BCE (The Kingdom of Hammurabi). The Babylonians "knew NOTHING about ratios of sides!" In addition to his importance as a conqueror, this king established the code of Hammurabi, which is the first code of written laws in history. Nabonidus failed to protect the property rights or religious traditions of the capital and attempted building operations elsewhere to rival Marduks great temple of Esagila. Dont yet have access? At the start of Nabonidus' reign, the Babylonian empire stretched from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean, and Nabonidus expanded it even further, capturing parts of what is now Saudi Arabia. to 540 B.C. Babylons acknowledged political supremacy is shown by the fact that the dynasty of Nebuchadrezzar I (112403), which endured for more than a century, made the city its capital, though the dynasty did not originate there. Ancient records say he even chose to live at Tayma, a city in what is now Saudi Arabia, until around 543 B.C. The history of Sumer and Akkad is one of constant warfare. . Compile the examples on a large chart using the categories on the graphic organizer. However, other experts on the clay tablet, known as Plimpton 322 (P322), say the new work is speculative at best. Thus ye'orim, Niles, came to be used. While Babylon was not hit directly by the Sea People they faced wars with other powers. Alexander planned to rebuild it along with other sites in the city with a force of 10,000 men, Dalley wrote. to 1105 B.C.) ", In 2011, an ancient stele, or inscribed stone, with an image of Nebuchadnezzar II was translated and published. After Ashurbanipals death, a Chaldean leader, Nabopolassar, in 626 made Babylon the capital of a kingdom that under his son Nebuchadrezzar II (605561 bce) became a major imperial power. "This class of boats [writes Hilprecht], according to the Nippur version [the oldest], [were] in use before the Deluge." In historic times the type still survived but only in archaic vessels used in ritual, the gods "in their boats . Classify series of historical events and developments as examples of change and/or continuity. In this activity, students refer to a natural resource map of the region to learn the source of materials for Old Babylonian artifacts reviewed online. A famous and important source of information about life in Old Babylonia is the so-called "Code of Hammurabi" which indicates the importance of class divisions, family life, religion, and commerce.
Why Doesn't Rupaul Do His Own Makeup, Articles B